The Roman Empire was the imperial phase of ancient Roman civilisation, beginning with the rule of Augustus in 27 BC. It followed the Roman Republic and controlled large parts of Europe, North Africa and western Asia around the Mediterranean.
The western imperial government collapsed in the fifth century AD, with 476 often used as a conventional end date for the Western Roman Empire. The eastern empire, governed from Constantinople, continued for centuries and is often called the Byzantine Empire by modern historians.
Origins
The empire grew out of the political crisis of the late Roman Republic. Civil wars, military strongmen and the concentration of power in individual commanders weakened republican institutions.
Octavian, later given the title Augustus, defeated his rivals and became the first Roman emperor. He kept many republican offices and forms in place, but real authority rested with him and the imperial system he built.
Government
The emperor controlled the army, finances, appointments and imperial policy. The Senate and other older institutions still existed, but their power depended heavily on the emperor and the political conditions of each reign.
Provinces were governed by officials appointed under imperial authority. Some provinces were directly controlled by the emperor because they contained major military forces, while others were administered through senatorial structures.
Expansion and Frontiers
The empire reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan in the early second century AD. Its lands included Italy, Gaul, Hispania, Britain, Greece, Egypt, Syria, parts of North Africa and territories along the Danube and Rhine.
The frontiers were not simple lines on a map. They included roads, forts, rivers, walls, allied communities and military zones. Hadrian's Wall in Britain is one of the best-known frontier structures.
Society and Economy
Roman society was unequal and hierarchical. Citizenship, legal status, class, gender, slavery, patronage and military service all affected a person's position.
The empire's economy depended on agriculture, taxation, trade, mining, craft production and slavery. Roman roads, ports and coinage helped move goods, soldiers and information across long distances.
Culture and Religion
Roman culture absorbed Greek, Etruscan, Egyptian, Jewish, Celtic and many other influences. Latin and Greek were the main languages of imperial administration and literature.
Traditional Roman religion involved public rituals, temples, household gods and emperor worship in some contexts. Christianity began as a small Jewish movement within the empire and later became legally tolerated under Constantine before becoming dominant in late antiquity.
Decline and Survival
The third century brought military, economic and political crises. Later reforms under Diocletian and Constantine changed the structure of government, taxation and the army.
The western empire lost effective control over many provinces in the fifth century. Rome itself was sacked in 410 and 455, and the last western emperor is usually said to have been deposed in 476. The eastern empire survived from Constantinople until the Ottoman conquest of the city in 1453.
See Also
References
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